p448-454

-slaves were capture, separate from family and friends, village destroy -> force march to interior trading town or slave pens at the coast -> load onto ships -deadly comnditions, average mortality rate is about 18% until the 18th century -__Middle Passage__ = dangers of poor hygiene, dysentory, disease, bad treatment, and fear of being beaten or worse by the European -Africans arrived in the Americas retaining their languages, beliefs, artistic traditions, and memories of their past
 * __Slave lives__**
 * situations sometimes led to suicide or resistance and mutiny on the ships

__**Africans in the Americas**__ -slaves were mainly brought to the plantations and mines of the Americas -enslaved Africans eventually replaced indentured servants in the English colinies of Barbados and Virginia -most slaves were agricultural laborers, some have urban occupations as artisans, stret bendors, and household servants
 * there was almost o occupation that slaves did not perform

__**American Slaves Societies**__ -American slave-based society are different but they each recognized distinctions betweeen __saltwater slaves__, and the __Creole slaves__ -hierarchy of status: free whites / free people of color / slaves -heirarchy among slaves: Creole and mulatto slaves / African slaves -in Peru, the Caribbean islands, Jamaica, and St. Domingue, slaves were a large proportions of the population -Brazil was more diverse even though they also had large numbers of imported Africans -southern colonies of British North America differed significantly from the Caribbean and Brazil by depending less on imported Africans because of natural population growth among the slaves
 * color and race played a role in American slavery
 * Creole and mulatto slaves were given more opportunities to acquire skilled jobs or to work as household servants, and more likely to win their freedom by manumission
 * by 1850, less than 1% of the slaves there were African born
 * the combination of natural growth and the small direct trade from Africa reduced the degree of African cultural reinforcement

-slaves faced a peciliar series of problems: exhausting working conditions, difficult and short life, and family separation through sale or master's whim -Afro-American culture created through the complexity of slavery to reflect specific African roots and adaptation to a new reality -religion was an obvious example of continuity and adaptation -in many cases, slaves held their new faith in Christianity and their African beliefs at the same time -more difficult for Muslim Africans, in 1835 in Bahia, the largest slave rebellion in Brazil was organized by Muslim Yoruba and Hausa slaves and directed against the whites and against nonbelievers -resistance and rebellion were other aspects of African American history
 * __The People and Gods in Exile__**
 * slaves were converted to Catholicism by Spaniards and the Portuguese
 * the British Caribbean converted them to protestant denominations
 * in the English islands, __obeah__ was the name given to the African religious practices, __candomble__ (Yoruba) in Brazil, and __vodun__ (Aja) in Haiti
 * __Palmares__, an enormous runaway slave kingdom with many villages and a population of approximately 8,000-10,000 people, resisted Portuguese and Dutch attempts to destroy it for a century
 * __Suriname__, a former Dutch plantation colony became settlement for large numbers of runaway slaves in the 18th century and remained until today

__**The End of the Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery**__ -there is disagreement about the end of the slave trade -full end of slavery in the Americas did not occur until 1888, when it was abolished in Brazil
 * resulted from economic, political, and religious changes in Europe and its overseas American colonies and former colonies, whiuch were manifestations of the Enlightenment, the age of revolution, Christian revivalism, and perhaps the Industrial Rev.
 * African societies began to export other commodities, such as peanuts, cotton, and palm oil, which made slave trade less important, but the supply of slaves to European merchants was not greatly affected by this development
 * opponents of slavery and the brutality of the trade had appeared in the mid-18th century, in relaiton to new intellectual movements in the West / slavery was the symbol of inhumanity and cruelty
 * England was the key to the end of the slave trade / under the leadership of religious humanitarians, an abolitionist movement gained strength against the merchants and the West Indies interests -> the British slave trade was abolished in 1807 / British tried to impose abolition of the slave trade on other countries throughout the Atlantic / Spain and Portugal were pressured to suppress the trade because the British navy was used enforce agreements by caputring illegal slave ships